• The term “降头” comes from the Hokkien term gong tau, and is also written as “贡头” or “诓头”.
• Black magic is known in Malay as ilmu hitam. Ilmu means “knowledge” and “science”. Black magic practitioners are known as pawang, while witch doctors are known as bomoh.
• Malay black magic is influenced by animist and Hindu elements and is closely related to folk beliefs in spirits and gods.
• In ancient Malay society, kampung bomohs had great power. They were called upon to cure illnesses, resolve disputes, elucidate mysteries, pray for good harvests, ward off evil spirits, and communicate with the spirit world. Some bomohs would keep spirits at home to assist them in exorcising evil spirits, keeping their belongings safe, and even causing harm to others.
• In Malay society, it is believed that bomohs cannot ask for large monetary favours when healing or exorcising others. They can only accept small tokens of money from the person they have helped.

After the domestic helper was fired, she sent a text message threatening to curse her employer’s family with black magic. The family was so frightened that they immediately reported the matter to the police. (Lianhe Wanbao, 29/10/2018)

• Bomohs are second in rank only to the village or tribal chief. They are tasked with the important role of safeguarding the village.
• In addition to village bomohs, there are also other witch doctors with different areas of expertise, such as royal bomohs who are responsible for helping the king communicate with royal spirits, forest bomohs who control the spirits in the forest, water bomohs who control spirits in the sea, and even bomohs with the power to control crocodiles.
• Black magic is closely associated with the spirit world. Hantu Hantu: An Account of Ghost Belief in Modern Malaya is an introduction to the ghosts of Malaya, and categorises them according to gender, appearance, preferences, region and behaviour.